Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna

Journal of Environmental Protection, 2015, 6, 1095-1104 Published Online October 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2015.610096 How to cite this paper: Di Maio, F. and Rem, P.C. (2015) A Robust Indicator for Promoting Circular Economy through Recy- cling. Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 1095-1104. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2015.610096 A Robust Indicator for Promoting Circular Economy through Recycling Francesco Di Maio, Peter Carlo Rem Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Email: [email protected] Received 25 August 2015; accepted 6 October 2015; published 9 October 2015 Copyright © 2015 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).

Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Abstract In order to move towards a more sustainable development, it is necessary not only to minimize the use of materials in the design stage and to find new materials as alternatives to nonrenewable ones (e.g. optical fiber instead of copper, biopolymers instead of polymers from oil) but also to reclaim as much as possible material value through effective recycling. To this extent, recycling can play a key role in multiple dimensions, while providing new business opportunities for inno- vative companies, having positive impacts on the society and the environment and fostering an effective circular economy as well.

…having positive impacts on the society and the environment and fostering an effective circular economy as well. Because of the advanced waste management infrastructures available in developed countries, it is possible to achieve an almost complete collection of solid wastes into a variety of controlled bulk material flows. However, the picture for the follow-up step, the recycling of raw materials such as steel, non-ferrous metals, polymers and glass from these flows, is less positive. Materials value recovered from waste represents a very small fraction of European GDP. The fundamental issue is that policymakers still lack an effective key performance indicator for stimulating the recycling industry. Therefore although recycling plays an important role in the circular economy perspective, it is necessary to radically change the metric used so far to compute the recycling rate.

…circular economy perspective, it is necessary to radically change the metric used so far to compute the recycling rate. Nowadays, the recycling rate is computed measuring the amount of material entering the recycling facilities. This approach has brought about an inaccurate and somehow misleading indicator (the recycling rate) which contributed to wrong decision making and to poor innovation in the industry. The new approach proposed in this paper considers the use of a Circular Economy Index (CEI) as the ratio of the material value produced by the recycler (market value) by the intrinsic material value1 entering the recycling facility. It is argued that this index is related to strategic, economic and environmental aspects of recycling and it has very im- portant implications as decision making tool.

…economic and environmental aspects of recycling and it has very im- portant implications as decision making tool. To compute the CEI it is necessary to know detailed information of the components and materials contained in each end of life (EOL) product entering the recycling facilities and how they end up in the recycled raw materials. Therefore an accurate accounting of materials (with standards if available), mass, chemical composition and smallest dimension (e.g. a screw, a plastic foil) is proposed. 1The present market value of all materials that would be needed to re-produce the EoL products that make up the waste. Ref. Ares(2020)7993891 - 29/12/2020 F. Di Maio, P. C. Rem 1096 Keywords Recycling, Recycling Rate, Innovation, Policy, Resource Efficiency, Indicators 1.

Di Maio, P. C. Rem 1096 Keywords Recycling, Recycling Rate, Innovation, Policy, Resource Efficiency, Indicators 1. Introduction The linear take-make-dispose economic model relies on large quantities of easily accessible resources, and as such is increasingly unfit for the reality in which it operates [1]. A reduction of resources consumed per unit of manufacturing output can only slowdown the depletion of those resources as it cannot modify the finite nature of their stocks. Demand and competition for limited resources increase price volatility, cause environmental de- gradation and threaten the competitiveness of countries. That is why the European Union as well as other coun- tries worldwide are striving to move toward a circular economy model [2].

…why the European Union as well as other coun- tries worldwide are striving to move toward a circular economy model [2]. In order to move towards a more sustainable development and at the same time create opportunities for eco- nomic growth, a fundamental transformation in producer and consumer behavior is needed. It is crucial to in- crease the resource efficiency of production optimizing the use of materials in the design stage and to find new materials as alternatives to nonrenewable ones (e.g. optical fiber instead of copper, biopolymers instead of po- lymers from oil). In many countries, it is also necessary to improve the resource efficiency of collection. How- ever, what is most urgent is to minimize the amount of materials which are currently disposed of, through effec- tive recycling (cf. Figure 1).

…is to minimize the amount of materials which are currently disposed of, through effec- tive recycling (cf. Figure 1). The waste management infrastructure of Europe is already well developed so that it achieves an almost com- plete collection of solid wastes into a variety of controlled bulk material flows [3]. The picture for the follow-up step, the recycling of raw materials such as steel, non-ferrous metals, polymers and glass from these flows, is less positive. Materials value recovered from waste represents less than 0.5% of European GDP, even at the most favorable of economic conditions (EEA report). In most EU countries, recycling provides only between 5% and 15% in value of the raw materials used in manufacturing and construction [4]. The fundamental issue is that policymakers still lack an effective key performance indicator for stimulating the recycling industry.

…issue is that policymakers still lack an effective key performance indicator for stimulating the recycling industry. Therefore although recycling is currently playing an important role in the circular economy perspective, it is necessary to radically change the metric used so far to compute the recycling rate. Nowadays the recycling rate is computed measuring the amount of material entering the recycling facilities. This approach has brought about an inaccurate and somehow misleading indicator (the recycling rate) which contributed to wrong decision mak- ing and to poor innovation in the industry [5] [6]. It is well known that material recycling is beneficial not only for the environment but also for the economy and the society at large.

…that material recycling is beneficial not only for the environment but also for the economy and the society at large. Every kilogram of recycled material can replace primary material and therefore displac- es the activities that are needed to locate, mine and process it. All such activities use energy, release pollution and alter the landscape in ways that are perceived as a danger to the environment. Some raw materials (e.g. co- balt, copper, platinum, neodymium, etc.) involve also relevant social issues such as conflicts to access minerals, human rights violations, black market, etc. [7]. Because of the advanced waste management infrastructures available in developed countries, large amount of end-of-life (EoL) industrial and consumer products are available.

…available in developed countries, large amount of end-of-life (EoL) industrial and consumer products are available. Despite their potential value, these EoL prod- ucts are still called waste residuals instead of “surface mines” waiting to be exploited [8]. However it is well es- Figure 1. Material flow and resource efficiencies. F. Di Maio, P. C. Rem 1097 tablished that increasing the efficient use of resources creates economic value (at firm, national and European level) and that the production of secondary materials is inherently more labor-intensive and less energy intensive than the production of primary materials [4]-[9]. Thus it creates significantly more jobs and requires higher le- vels of skills, facilitating the entry of women into the labor [10]. 2.

…significantly more jobs and requires higher le- vels of skills, facilitating the entry of women into the labor [10]. 2. From a Linear to a Circular Economy Europe has the world’s highest net imports of resources per person, and its open economy relies heavily on im- ported raw materials and energy. Secure access to resources has become an increasingly strategic economic is- sue, while possible negative social and environmental impacts on third countries constitute an additional concern [11]. In 2013, a total amount of 5.7 billion tonnes [12] of materials has been used by the EU economy to provide its citizens with the goods and services they needed. In terms of value, the above total amount accounts to about 400 bn euro2.

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…sustainability Article Combining Eco-Design and LCA as Decision-Making Process to Prevent Plastics in Packaging Application Eleonora Foschi 1,* , Sara Zanni 1 and Alessandra Bonoli 2 1 Department of Management, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; [email protected] 2 Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, 40131 Bologna, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 31 October 2020; Accepted: 19 November 2020; Published: 22 November 2020


 Abstract: The diffusion of the culture of sustainability and circular economy increasingly pushes companies to adopt green strategies and integrate circular business models in the corporate agenda.

…increasingly pushes companies to adopt green strategies and integrate circular business models in the corporate agenda. It assumes higher relevance in the packaging industry because of the growing plastics demand, the increasing awareness of consumers on single-use-products, the low recyclability performance and last but not least, the challenge of urban littering and microplastics dispersion in marine ecosystem. This paper presents the case of a small-medium enterprise that implemented a decision-making process to rethink the design of frozen food packaging in accordance with systemic and life cycle thinking. Eco-design and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) have been simultaneously used to test and validate the redesign process, thus fostering the substitution of the plastic “open and close” cap with a closing method entirely made of cardboard.

…thus fostering the substitution of the plastic “open and close” cap with a closing method entirely made of cardboard. Results shows how using an integrated decision-making system at the design stage have allowed to get up many benefits at multiple levels, including sustainable and safe supply chain, efficient logistic operations, better recyclability, and lower energy consumption. Moreover, even if it cannot be assessed by the existing tools, the solution provides a strong contribution to the reduction in the consumption of plastics and the prevention of marine pollution. Keywords: eco-design; plastic prevention; packaging; sustainability; LCA 1. Introduction Among all the materials, plastics have shown the fastest growing demand in the last decades, moving from 1.7 million metric tons (Mt) in 1950 to 359 Mt in 2018 [1–5].

…fastest growing demand in the last decades, moving from 1.7 million metric tons (Mt) in 1950 to 359 Mt in 2018 [1–5]. Its negligent use, especially in the packaging sector, has caused multiple externalities over the years at such a point to become one of the most urgent environmental issues to deal with nowadays. Despite significant worldwide advances in management, treatment and recycling of plastics in the last three decades, the largest amount of post-consumer waste properly collected is incinerated and/or landfilled [5,6]. In some countries, a residual part is openly burned, emitting carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) [7]. Illegal export and uncontrolled disposal are also frequent because of the underperforming recycling infrastructure [8,9].

…export and uncontrolled disposal are also frequent because of the underperforming recycling infrastructure [8,9]. Finally, an unknown portion of plastics is littered, thus contributing to massively worsen the status quo of the marine ecosystem [10,11]. The literature on marine plastic pollution (MPP) leaves no doubt that plastics make-up most of the marine litter worldwide. As reported by Derraik and Thevenon et al., 60–80% of global marine debris is made of plastic materials [12,13]. Even if standardized methods to measure and model the presence of plastics and microplastics in seas and beaches doesn’t exist yet, the key publications on the topic estimates that about 10% of the total plastics produced every year is released in the oceans, accounting for 10 Mt [14–16]. Owing to the low degradability, conventional plastics remain in aquatic habits for decades [17].

…for 10 Mt [14–16]. Owing to the low degradability, conventional plastics remain in aquatic habits for decades [17]. Recent sampling Sustainability 2020, 12, 9738; doi:10.3390/su12229738 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Ref. Ares(2020)7993891 - 29/12/2020 Sustainability 2020, 12, 9738 2 of 13 activities reveals that many commercial packets and wrappers, put into the market more than 50 years ago, are recovered in the whole world shores, seas and seabed [5]. Due to its short lifespan and improperly management at end-of-life (EoL), packaging are those applications that most contribute to the MPP [6]. In particular, the results figured out by six of the beach clean-ups around the world show that out of almost 14 million items collected, five of the ten most found items are plastic packaging [6]. Among them, the single-use plastic packaging accounts for 50% of the marine litter [18,19].

…are plastic packaging [6]. Among them, the single-use plastic packaging accounts for 50% of the marine litter [18,19]. It digs up correlation with the market trend of the last decades which sees a fourfold increase in the demand of conventional plastics from 1960 to date, accounting for 130 Mt in 2015 [11]. In Europe, the packaging sector registered a plastic demand of 20.1 Mt in 2018. About 40% is nowadays used to package food [2]. Looking at the waste management performance, only 42% of 17.8 Mt of plastic packaging waste (PPW) collected was sent for recycling while the remaining was landfilled (18.5%) and incinerated for energy recovery (39.5%) [2]. Many challenges affect the recyclability of packaging. Among them, the design largely contributes to underperform the material valorization of packaging in further cycles.

Among them, the design largely contributes to underperform the material valorization of packaging in further cycles. This paper presents the case of a small-medium enterprise that implemented an integrated decision-making process to rethink the packaging design, thus contributing to maximize efficiency at the EoL as well as in logistics and distribution operations. In this context, the work aims at highlighting that the development of a systemic and life cycle approach is crucial to reduce the environmental impacts of the packaging sector, especially when correlated to the urgency to prevent the use of plastic materials. 2. European Policy on Plastics Prevention and Packaging Reduction Packaging manufacturers and users are under pressure because of the urgency to systemically rethink production, consumption, and disposal patterns.

…users are under pressure because of the urgency to systemically rethink production, consumption, and disposal patterns. Many legislative measures have been introduced in the fields of plastics and plastic packaging to prevent problems in recycling infrastructure as well as natural environment. The Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP) represents the starting point of a transitioning process towards more sustainable packaging system. In this framework, plastic materials have been considered as one of the five prioritizing materials [20,21]. The Strategy for plastics in a Circular Economy introduces the ambitious goal about having 100% reusable and/or recyclable packaging by 2030 [22]. The most striking Directive on Singe-use Plastics (SUPs) contains a multitude of actions aimed to ban and restrict the use of some plastic applications [23].

Plastics (SUPs) contains a multitude of actions aimed to ban and restrict the use of some plastic applications [23]. The Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive includes additional aspiring targets on plastic packaging waste collection and recycling [24,25]. While the first cycle of measures on circular economy invested on optimizing the recycling as option to add and maintain the intrinsic value of materials as long and better as possible in the value chain, the new CEAP, published by the Commission in 2020, prioritizes actions on reducing and reusing materials before recycling them [26]. Prevention covers a pivotal role in the Green New Deal as well [27]. Measures to reduce over-packaging are also highlighted in the new policy on sustainable products [26]. It follows that reduce and reuse strategies are the priorities of the current political agenda.

…products [26]. It follows that reduce and reuse strategies are the priorities of the current political agenda. This commitment on the circularity and sustainability of packaging has stimulated the reaction of the converting industry that is putting effort in redesigning their products to prevent the use of plastic materials on one side and maximize the recyclability of products on another. Packaging issues emerge as the key elements of the sustainability agenda of manufacturing companies. A multitude of strategies, including sustainable resources supply, materials selection, recyclability and reusability systems are under exploration in Europe [28]. According to Bocken et al.

…selection, recyclability and reusability systems are under exploration in Europe [28]. According to Bocken et al. [29], the following fundamental strategies towards the cycling of resources can be identified: • Slowing resource loops through the design of long-life goods and product-life extension; • Closing resource loops through the recycling. In all the strategies, eco-design covers a fundamental role to speed up the plastic circularity. It takes more importance in one-way plastic packaging where the durability of the materials doesn’t fit with the short life span of the applications [30].

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originalus šaltinis (PDF) ↗